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To start a chemical reaction, the energy needed to break existing chemical bonds is known as “activation energy.” The bare minimum of energy needed for a reaction to take place is known as activation energy. It stands for the energy barrier that reactant molecules must cross in order to change into the product state.

One stage of the dark reaction that takes place in the chloroplast’s stroma is carbon fixation.

The process by which protons migrate from an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration, or along their electrochemical gradient, is known as chemiosmosis. They pass through ATP synthase during this process, which causes ADP and inorganic phosphate to couple with ATP. Since there are more protons in the thylakoid lumen of chloroplasts than in the stroma, protons flow from the lumen into the stroma through the semi-permeable membrane.

Carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood from the tissues as systemic arterial blood passes through capillaries. The blood contains some dissolved carbon dioxide. Haemoglobin and some carbon dioxide combine to form carbaminohaemoglobin. Bicarbonate and hydrogen ions are produced from the residual carbon dioxide. The majority of carbon dioxide is carried by the blood as bicarbonate ions.

Acute and chronic bronchitis are the two forms of the illness.

Your statement is only partially accurate. Each pyruvate molecule, a byproduct of glycolysis, goes through a process known as pyruvate decarboxylation prior to entering the Krebs (citric acid) cycle. The mitochondria are where this takes place. However, acetyl-CoA (acetyl coenzyme A) rather than acetic acid is the end product. There are two primary steps involved in converting pyruvate to acetyl-CoA:

Decarboxylation: A two-carbon molecule known as an acetyl group is produced when one of the three carbon atoms in pyruvate is eliminated as carbon dioxide (CO2).

Oxidation: The electrons are moved to NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and the remaining two-carbon acetyl group is oxidized, creating NADH. Acetyl-CoA is then created by joining the oxidized acetyl group with coenzyme A.

A form of sugar called ribulose is essential to many biological functions, especially photosynthesis. Ribulose’s most prominent function is in the Calvin Cycle, the light-independent stage of photosynthesis that occurs in the chloroplast stroma. Ribulose is essential to the carbon fixation process in the Calvin Cycle. A five-carbon sugar called ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) is essential for the first stage of the Calvin Cycle. With the aid of the enzyme ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO), it combines with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). An unstable six-carbon compound is created as a result of this reaction, and it instantly splits into two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA), which are subsequently utilized in the production of carbohydrates.

Since only one of the six G3P molecules produced exits the cycle to be utilized by plants to produce glucose, Option A is accurate. Three molecules of 5-C RuBP are regenerated using the remaining molecules.

In a leaf,’stomata’ (singular: stoma) are pores that facilitate the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen as well as the transpirational loss of water vapor. Stomata typically close at night and open in the morning when the leaf receives light.

D is the right choice. Adults typically breathe between 15 and 20 times per minute when at rest. The breathing rate increases 21–24 times during exercise in order to provide more oxygen.

The particular kind of anaerobic process involved determines the final products of anaerobic respiration. Lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation are the two primary forms of anaerobic respiration.

Lactic acid is the final product of lactic acid fermentation.When there is insufficient oxygen available to support aerobic respiration during intense exercise, this process takes place in muscle cells and in a variety of microorganisms. The general response is:
Two lactic acids plus energy (in the form of ATP) equals glucose.

Ethanol and carbon dioxide are the final byproducts of alcoholic fermentation. In the absence of oxygen, yeast and certain bacteria frequently carry out this process.The general process is as follows: glucose + 2 ethanol + 2 carbon dioxide + energy (ATP).

The protein molecule in red blood cells called hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs to the body’s tissues. The normal oxygen saturation level in healthy people is around 20 milliliters of oxygen per 100 milliliters of blood, which is the maximum amount of oxygen that hemoglobin can absorb at sea level.

The volume of air that enters or exits the lungs during each respiratory cycle is known as the tidal volume. In a healthy adult, it is approximately 500 ml.

A protein called ATP synthase uses ADP and inorganic phosphate to catalyze the synthesis of the energy-storing molecule ATP.

Animals’ moist membranes allow carbon dioxide and oxygen to diffuse through them. Simple animals have direct interactions with their surroundings. However, in complex animals like mammals, the environment and blood exchange information. Diffusion transports oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream during gas exchange. Carbon dioxide travels from the blood to the lungs at the same time. Between the alveoli and a system of microscopic blood vessels called capillaries, which are found in the alveolar walls, this occurs in the lungs.

An enzyme called phosphofructokinase (PFK) is essential to glycolysis, the metabolic process that turns glucose into pyruvate. Fructose-6-phosphate is specifically converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate by PFK. This is frequently regarded as the pathway’s rate-limiting step and is a crucial regulatory step in glycolysis.

In the mitochondria, glycine produced during photorespiration is transformed into serine, which releases CO2 and ammonia and causes NAD+ to be reduced to NADH.

The chloroplast’s stroma is where the dark reactions of photosynthesis, sometimes referred to as the Calvin Cycle or light-independent reactions, occur. The fluid-filled area that envelops the chloroplast’s thylakoid membranes is called the stroma. The Calvin Cycle, in which carbon dioxide is fixed and transformed into carbohydrates, takes place in the stroma, whereas the light-dependent reactions take place in the thylakoid membrane.

Emphysema is characterized by damage to the inner walls of the lungs’ air sacs, or alveoli, which leads to their eventual rupture. As a result, there is only one larger airspace rather than numerous smaller ones, and there is less surface area available for gas exchange. Breathlessness is a symptom of the lung disease emphysema.

The final byproduct of glycolysis is pyruvic acid. It goes through an intermediary stage known as pyruvate oxidation before directly entering the Kreb cycle.

Thylakoids are where photosynthesis’ energy-capturing reactions take place.

Five of the ‘6 G3P’ produced by a single Calvin cycle are used to create the carbon dioxide acceptor, leaving ‘1 G3P’ as the net gain.

When water is used to release the terminal phosphate in a single ATP molecule, 7.3 Kcal/mol of energy is released.

Premature infants who have not yet produced enough surfactant in their lungs are the main victims of respiratory distress syndrome (RDS). Their lungs’ increased surface tension makes it more difficult for them to expand and adequately fill with air. This causes shallow breathing and respiratory difficulties, which can lead to serious breathing issues and inadequate blood oxygenation.

The pigments known as xanthophylls are frequently in charge of providing a yellow hue in paper chromatography. Plants contain a type of carotenoid pigment called xanthophylls, which gives different plant tissues their yellow, orange, and red hues. These pigments can be separated in paper chromatography according to how differently they bind to the paper and the mobile solvent. A sample containing xanthophylls is spotted onto a piece of filter paper in the process of paper chromatography. The pigments are carried by the solvent as it moves up the paper. When the chromatography is finished, xanthophylls, which are yellow pigments, will show up on the paper as yellow bands or spots.

Between the pharynx and trachea are the glottis and larynx, or voice box.

Adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, is the main byproduct of cyclic photophosphorylation in photosynthesis. One of the two kinds of light reactions that take place in the chloroplasts’ thylakoid membrane is cyclic photophosphorylation. The end effect is the production of ATP without the release of oxygen or the creation of NADPH. Certain photosynthetic bacteria and the light reactions of photosynthesis in the chloroplasts of some plants depend heavily on cyclic photophosphorylation.

One NADH molecule is oxidized for every two electrons carried by the respiratory electron chain. This results in a 2:1 ratio. Four electrons will move through the chain at this point. As a result, option D is accurate since two NADH molecules will be oxidized.

In the citric acid cycle, succinate is oxidized to fumarate, and FAD is reduced to FADH2 in the process. In the electron transport chain, FADH2 and NADH are essential for the production of ATP during oxidative phosphorylation. The general response is:

Autotrophs can start their own nutrition with CO2 and other inorganic nutrients, but heterotrophs cannot.